Indian∵Buddhism

∵∵∵It∵is∵a∵tribute∵to∵the∵thought∵and∵enlightenment∵of∵Great∵Buddha∵that∵he∵philosophized∵within∵the∵broad∵spectrum∵of∵humanity∵and∵its∵basic∵concerns.∵∵In∵his∵great∵wisdom∵Buddha∵taught∵mankind∵to∵have∵respect∵for∵all∵living∵animate∵beings.∵∵That∵great∵moment∵of∵illumination∵of∵Buddha∵has∵been∵the∵greatest∵blessing∵for∵mankind∵in∵so∵far∵as∵successive∵order∵of∵cause∵and∵effect∵i.e.∵the∵doctrine∵of∵Pratitya∵Samutpad∵could∵explain∵the∵springs∵of∵life∵or∵the∵sprouting∵the∵life∵of∵an∵animate∵being∵which∵is∵liable∵to∵death.∵∵Thus∵the∵relation∵of∵avidya∵to∵birth∵old∵age∵and∵death∵presents∵itself∵in∵a∵transparent∵manner.∵∵

In∵this∵great∵philosophical∵insight∵the∵ontology∵of∵interdependence∵of∵cause∵and∵effect∵is∵explained∵as∵a∵relationship∵of∵conjoint∵conditionality.∵∵The∵texts∵of∵Amritkanika∵equate∵life∵and∵death∵cycle∵with∵ignorance∵of∵conjoint∵conjunction.∵∵An∵animate∵being∵rotates∵in∵the∵cycle∵of∵birth∵and∵death∵on∵account∵of∵avidya,∵i.e.∵not∵knowing∵the∵true∵nature∵of∵existence∵of∵life.∵∵It∵is∵pertinent∵to∵mention∵that∵ancient∵wisdom∵always∵looked∵for∵essence∵and∵nature∵of∵human∵life.

If∵avidya∵is∵eradicated∵by∵performance∵of∵the∵meritorious∵deeds∵the∵continuity∵of∵cycle∵would∵be∵broken.∵∵Life∵and∵death∵cycle∵ends∵by∵awakening∵from∵the∵slumber∵of∵avidya∵and∵longing∵for∵material∵objects.∵∵Thus∵awakened∵Buddha∵according∵to∵Tantric∵Buddhism∵is∵one∵who∵has∵attained∵liberation∵both∵from∵avidya∵and∵trsna.∵∵In∵fact∵tantric∵Buddhism∵aims∵to∵make∵inpidual∵self∵illuminated∵for∵enlightenment∵of∵the∵society∵thus∵making∵the∵inpidual∵an∵atmadipa.

Mahayana∵Buddhism∵is∵seen∵in∵the∵altruistic∵sense∵in∵so∵far∵as∵it∵preaches∵altruistic∵∵service∵∵par∵∵excellence∵∵（paramitanaya）∵∵for∵∵the∵∵welfare∵∵and∵∵good∵of∵many.∵∵They∵believe∵in∵mantra∵syllables∵for∵their∵efficacy∵in∵achieving∵the∵welfare∵and∵good∵of∵humanity.∵Though∵suffering∵is∵mechanically∵conditioned∵as∵long∵as∵avidya∵remains,∵∵nevertheless∵among∵the∵average∵sentient∵beings∵excellent∵are∵those∵who∵perform∵excellent∵deeds.

The∵great∵exponent∵of∵Buddhist∵thought∵Nagarjuna∵emphasized∵the∵essencelessness∵of∵the∵phenomenal∵world.∵∵He∵spoke∵of∵the∵need∵to∵evacuate∵psychophysical∵entities∵by∵Pratitya∵Samutpad.∵∵The∵practitioners∵of∵yoga∵tantra∵endeavour∵to∵experience∵the∵essencelessness∵of∵Shunyata.

This∵is∵considered∵equivalent∵to∵wisdom∵of∵universal∵consciousness.∵∵There∵is∵a∵laudable∵effort∵to∵discern∵inpidual∵freedom∵from∵collective∵freedom∵in∵Buddhism.∵∵Sangha∵has∵been∵visualized∵as∵an∵instrumentality∵of∵realizing∵this∵ideal∵of∵collective∵freedom.∵∵The∵best∵feature∵of∵Indian∵Buddhism∵is∵that∵it∵seeks∵equity∵and∵social∵equality∵to∵realize∵this∵end.∵∵Indian∵Buddhism∵has∵struggled∵hard∵rejecting∵the∵caste∵system∵which∵was∵endemic∵to∵Indian∵tradition.∵∵

The∵contemporary∵scholars∵of∵Buddhism∵have∵revitalized∵the∵process∵of∵reinterpretation∵of∵Buddhism∵with∵a∵view∵to∵provide∵a∵new∵definition∵to∵the∵role∵and∵function∵of∵Jnana∵[knowledge].∵∵They∵have∵emphasized∵the∵necessity∵of∵seeing∵Jnana∵in∵its∵purest∵form∵as∵the∵activating∵source∵of∵action.∵∵For∵them∵the∵perfection∵of∵human∵existence∵is∵the∵aim∵and∵the∵ideal∵of∵human∵action.1∵∵The∵most∵striking∵aspect∵of∵Buddhism∵according∵to∵them∵is∵its∵overwhelming∵emphasis∵on∵anthropocentricity∵which∵they∵named∵as∵universal∵humanity.

Buddhism∵teaches∵that∵the∵eternal∵universal∵Dharma∵ought∵to∵be∵the∵only∵supreme∵sovereign∵of∵rulers;∵ethics∵must∵govern∵public∵affairs.∵∵Poverty∵is∵the∵cause∵of∵disorder∵and∵discontent∵amongst∵people.∵∵It∵can∵be∵eliminated∵by∵virtue∵of∵economic∵welfare∵of∵all∵people.∵∵Therefore∵the∵ideology∵of∵the∵state∵must∵be∵rooted∵in∵righteousness.∵∵The∵state∵must∵be∵for∵the∵welfare∵of∵all∵and∵for∵serving∵moral∵ends.

Buddhism∵has∵rightly∵been∵called∵a∵veritable∵link∵between∵tradition∵and∵modernity∵for∵in∵it∵we∵find∵a∵number∵of∵characteristics∵which∵contemporary∵mind∵attributes∵to∵modernity.∵∵On∵closer∵analysis∵we∵find∵that∵concept∵of∵anatta∵itself∵is∵indicative∵of∵the∵fact∵that∵Buddhism∵had∵learnt∵to∵liberate∵itself∵from∵beliefs∵which∵could∵not∵sustain∵the∵scrutiny∵of∵reason∵and∵empirical∵verification.

Buddha∵seems∵to∵be∵the∵first∵one∵to∵preach∵（a）∵the∵non∵substantiality,∵momentariness∵and∵emptiness∵of∵all∵things∵on∵the∵basis∵of∵rational∵analysis∵（b）∵the∵indefinable∵oneness∵at∵the∵centre∵of∵and∵as∵the∵ground∵of∵all∵things∵yet∵transcending∵them,∵capable∵of∵being∵experienced∵only∵in∵the∵state∵of∵enlightenment.∵∵The∵world∵must∵be∵looked∵upon∵as∵empty∵and∵the∵belief∵in∵self∵given∵up∵in∵order∵that∵the∵immortal∵and∵blissful∵may∵be∵attained.∵∵The∵Mahayana∵Sutras∵call∵the∵knowledge∵of∵the∵Pure∵Great∵self,∵and∵non∵dual∵（advaya）∵as∵wisdom∵prajna.

According∵to∵Vivekananda∵the∵unique∵element∵in∵Buddhism∵was∵its∵social∵element.∵∵He∵found∵Buddha∵teaching∵universal∵brotherhood∵of∵man∵and∵as∵the∵only∵great∵Indian∵seer∵and∵philosopher∵who∵would∵not∵recognize∵caste.∵∵Buddha∵was∵a∵great∵preacher∵of∵equality∵of∵man.2

Buddhism∵considers∵that∵the∵view∵that∵one∵caste∵is∵superior∵to∵another∵is∵false∵and∵evil.∵∵All∵the∵so∵called∵four∵castes,∵it∵says,∵are∵exactly∵the∵same,∵equally∵pure,∵and∵no∵one∵of∵them∵is∵superior∵to∵the∵others.∵∵Therefore,∵there∵is∵no∵svadharma∵in∵the∵sense∵of∵an∵obligatory,∵hereditary∵profession∵as∵the∵Hindu∵Smrtis∵seems∵to∵enjoin.

Buddhism∵recognized∵that∵caste∵system∵arose∵historically∵due∵to∵racial∵prejudice∵and∵socio-economic∵conditions.∵∵It∵was∵indeed∵a∵revolution∵in∵social∵thought∵when∵Buddha∵proclaimed∵that∵caste∵and∵class∵prejudices∵are∵obstacles∵to∵higher∵morality∵and∵knowledge∵and∵therefore∵to∵salvation.

In∵a∵lecturer∵in∵Shanghai∵in∵1913∵Dharmapala,∵speaking∵about∵social∵gospel∵of∵Buddha,∵said,∵“it∵has∵a∵definite∵ideal∵for∵its∵realization∵here∵and∵now,∵making∵life∵cheerful,∵energetic,∵serene,∵worth∵living∵for∵the∵sake∵of∵doing∵good,∵for∵the∵welfare∵of∵others,∵this∵is∵what∵the∵Tathagata∵proclaimed.3”

In∵most∵systems∵of∵religion∵and∵philosophy∵the∵question∵of∵the∵nature∵of∵man∵and∵his∵destiny∵centers∵largely∵in∵the∵doctrines∵of∵the∵soul∵which∵has∵been∵variously∵defined.∵∵Some∵call∵it∵the∵principle∵of∵thought∵and∵action∵in∵man∵or∵that∵which∵thinks,∵wills∵and∵feels,∵knows∵and∵sees∵and∵also∵that∵which∵appropriates∵and∵owns.∵∵It∵is∵that∵which∵both∵acts∵and∵initiates∵action.∵∵It∵is∵conceived∵as∵a∵durable∵entity∵the∵permanent∵and∵unchanging∵factor∵within∵the∵concrete∵personality∵which∵somehow∵unites∵and∵maintains∵its∵successive∵activities.∵∵It∵is∵also∵the∵subject∵of∵conscious∵spiritual∵experience.

The∵Indian∵tradition∵has∵entertained∵kinds∵of∵pantheism∵with∵Brahman∵–∵eternal∵and∵absolute∵as∵the∵first∵cause∵of∵universe.∵∵The∵manifestation∵of∵Brahman∵was∵some∵times∵personified∵and∵called∵Brahma∵–∵God∵or∵the∵great∵self.∵∵Every∵human∵being∵had∵in∵him∵a∵part∵of∵Brahman∵called∵atman∵or∵the∵little∵self,∵Brahman∵and∵atman∵were∵one∵and∵the∵same∵substance.∵∵Salvation∵consisted∵in∵the∵little∵atman∵entering∵into∵unity∵with∵Brahman.∵∵The∵atman∵was∵conceived∵as∵an∵eternal∵substance∵exempt∵from∵the∵vicissitudes∵of∵change∵and∵incapable∵of∵entering∵into∵combinations∵with∵anything∵else∵except∵itself.4

Many∵theories∵meanwhile∵grew∵up∵regarding∵the∵concept∵of∵atman.∵∵Many∵of∵these∵are∵to∵be∵found∵in∵the∵Brahmajala∵Sutta∵of∵the∵Digha∵Nikaya∵which∵is∵assumed∵to∵contain∵the∵whole∵of∵what∵is∵possible∵to∵assert∵concerning∵the∵self∵（atta）∵and∵the∵universe,∵treated∵from∵every∵point∵of∵view∵positively,∵negatively∵and∵both.∵∵Thus∵one∵view∵asserts∵that∵self∵and∵universe∵are∵eternal∵（Sassata∵Vada）.∵∵The∵other∵view∵holds∵that∵self∵and∵the∵universe∵are∵in∵some∵respects∵eternal∵and∵in∵some∵not.∵∵The∵third∵view∵maintains∵that∵self∵and∵universe∵have∵arisen∵without∵cause.∵∵The∵other∵theoreticians∵maintain∵that∵soul∵exists∵as∵a∵conscious∵entity∵after∵death,∵yet∵others∵maintain∵that∵it∵exists∵but∵is∵unconscious.∵∵It∵is∵further∵maintained∵that∵inpidual∵ceases∵to∵exist∵after∵death∵and∵is∵annihilated.∵∵This∵annihilation∵is∵stated∵to∵be∵taking∵place∵（1）∵with∵the∵death∵of∵the∵body∵（2）∵with∵the∵death∵of∵the∵pine∵atman∵in∵the∵world∵of∵sense∵（kamaloka）∵（3）∵in∵the∵world∵of∵form∵（rupaloka）∵or∵（4）∵in∵one∵of∵the∵formless∵worlds∵（arupa∵loka）.

However,∵it∵is∵only∵in∵the∵Upanisads∵that∵a∵formidable∵doctrine∵of∵self∵has∵been∵formulated∵and∵which∵remains∵fundamental∵in∵the∵context∵of∵Indian∵thought∵which∵needs∵investigation∵more∵than∵anything∵else∵while∵dealing∵with∵Buddhist∵teachings∵on∵the∵self.∵∵It∵is∵assumed∵that∵there∵does∵exist∵a∵self∵（atman）∵in∵one’s∵personality∵and∵the∵problem∵is∵only∵to∵locate∵it.∵∵It∵is∵also∵assumed∵that∵this∵atman∵is∵free∵from∵death∵（Vimrtyuh）,∵free∵from∵（Visokah）∵and∵has∵real∵thoughts∵（Satyasamkalpah）.∵∵Some∵times∵the∵atman∵is∵identified∵with∵the∵physical∵personality∵and∵sometimes∵it∵is∵identified∵with∵the∵self∵in∵the∵dream∵state∵or∵in∵deep∵sleep.

In∵its∵conception∵as∵something∵physical∵it∵is∵believed∵that∵there∵are∵hundred∵and∵one∵channels∵radiating∵from∵the∵heart∵through∵any∵of∵which∵the∵atman∵may∵leave∵the∵body∵in∵sleep.∵∵From∵one∵aperture∵at∵the∵top∵of∵head∵it∵may∵pass∵on∵to∵immortality.

Some∵theories∵state∵that∵atman∵can∵not∵be∵identified∵with∵any∵aspects∵of∵the∵personality∵physical∵or∵psychological∵and∵then∵proceed∵to∵the∵metaphysical∵assumption∵that∵the∵atman∵is∵an∵unobservable∵entity,∵a∵pure∵ego,∵like∵air∵it∵rises∵from∵the∵body∵and∵reaches∵the∵highest∵light∵and∵appears∵in∵its∵own∵form.∵∵Yagnavalkya∵spoke∵of∵the∵unknowableness∵of∵the∵atman∵by∵any∵process∵of∵reasoning∵or∵by∵any∵of∵the∵standard∵ways∵of∵knowing.∵∵The∵idea∵implied∵here∵is∵that∵the∵Supreme∵atman∵（Brahman）∵is∵unknowable,∵because∵he∵is∵the∵all∵comprehending∵unity,∵whereas∵all∵knowledge∵presupposes∵a∵duality∵of∵subject∵and∵object.∵∵The∵inpidual∵atman∵is∵also∵unknowable,∵because∵in∵all∵knowledge∵he∵is∵knowing∵subject∵and∵consequently∵can∵never∵be∵the∵object.

However,∵other∵thinkers∵at∵the∵time∵of∵Upanishads∵believe∵that∵the∵atman∵could∵be∵known∵by∵all∵the∵usual∵ways∵of∵knowing,∵that∵it∵could∵be∵empirically∵perceived,∵be∵heard∵and∵metaphysically∵conceived∵of∵and∵rationally∵understood∵by∵thinking∵–∵a∵view∵which∵echoed∵in∵Sankara∵who∵accepts∵that∵atman∵can∵be∵known∵through∵arguments∵and∵reasoning.

Buddhist∵theory∵of∵anatta∵or∵non∵self∵seems∵to∵contradict∵all∵the∵previous∵theories∵of∵atman∵or∵self∵in∵one∵pervasive∵way.∵∵He∵made∵no∵concession∵to∵the∵doctrine∵of∵self∵and∵denied∵the∵view∵that∵in∵man∵there∵is∵an∵atman∵or∵an∵autonomous∵self∵that∵is∵permanent∵and∵unchanging∵and∵is∵possessed∵of∵bliss.5∵∵He∵denied∵equally∵emphatically∵that∵at∵death∵man∵is∵utterly∵destroyed.∵∵He∵denied∵that∵man∵is∵pine∵but∵he∵said∵that∵man∵should∵and∵could∵become∵pine∵by∵good∵thoughts,∵words∵and∵deeds.∵∵It∵is∵the∵concrete∵man∵and∵not∵the∵transcendental∵self∵that∵achieves∵perfection∵by∵constant∵effort∵and∵creative∵will.

The∵Buddhist∵argument∵against∵the∵doctrine∵of∵atman∵is∵two∵fold.∵∵Firstly,∵no∵aspect∵of∵personality∵can∵be∵identified∵with∵the∵atman∵since∵it∵does∵not∵have∵the∵characteristic∵of∵atman.∵∵∵The∵Buddha∵while∵accepting∵the∵definition∵of∵atman∵without∵assuming∵its∵existence∵or∵non-existence∵seeks∵to∵confirm∵it∵one∵way∵or∵the∵other∵by∵empirical∵investigation.∵∵When∵the∵existence∵is∵not∵revealed∵through∵such∵an∵empirical∵investigation,∵he∵concludes∵that∵no∵such∵atman∵exists∵because∵there∵is∵no∵evidence∵for∵its∵existence.

The∵second∵argument∵of∵Buddha∵is∵that∵a∵belief∵in∵a∵permanent∵self∵would∵negate∵the∵usefulness∵of∵moral∵life.∵∵In∵anattalakkhana∵Buddha∵stated∵the∵characteristics∵of∵his∵doctrine∵of∵the∵not-self∵（anatta）.∵∵He∵begins∵by∵emphasizing∵that∵if∵there∵were∵a∵self∵it∵would∵be∵autonomous∵but∵no∵such∵entity∵exists.

Responding∵to∵the∵question∵whether∵the∵body∵is∵permanent∵or∵impermanent∵it∵was∵answered∵that∵it∵is∵impermanent∵and∵that∵which∵is∵impermanent∵is∵sorrowful.∵∵Therefore∵of∵that∵which∵is∵impermanent∵sorrowful∵and∵liable∵to∵change∵it∵is∵not∵proper∵to∵say∵“this∵is∵mine,∵this∵I∵am,∵this∵is∵my∵soul.”∵∵Accordingly,∵it∵cannot∵be∵the∵self.

The∵same∵arguments∵are∵repeated∵for∵the∵other∵aspects∵of∵the∵personality,∵such∵as∵feeling∵（vedana）∵perception∵（sanna）∵dispositions∵or∵tendencies∵（sankhara）∵and∵consciousness∵（vinnana）.∵∵When∵a∵man∵realizes∵that∵all∵these∵things∵are∵not∵the∵self∵he∵turns∵away∵from∵them∵and∵by∵the∵extinction∵of∵desire∵he∵attains∵release.

Here∵we∵find∵for∵the∵first∵time∵indication∵of∵Buddha’s∵purpose∵in∵enunciating∵his∵doctrine.∵∵All∵misery,∵in∵his∵view,∵arises∵from∵the∵delusion∵of∵self∵which∵causes∵man∵to∵strive∵to∵profit∵himself∵and∵to∵injure∵others.∵∵The∵most∵effective∵therapeutic∵against∵the∵folly∵of∵seeking∵to∵gratify∵longings∵is∵the∵realization∵that∵there∵is∵no∵truth∵in∵the∵doctrine∵of∵permanent∵self.

The∵self∵–∵that∵precious∵self∵around∵which∵the∵whole∵universe∵revolves∵is∵but∵a∵fabrication∵of∵mind∵（Samoha∵Citta）.∵∵Isolation∵and∵opposition∵builds∵up∵this∵permanent∵“I”∵or∵some∵concept∵to∵escape∵the∵inevitable∵submersion∵in∵the∵stream∵of∵impermanence∵（anicca）.6∵∵Mind∵itself∵dissolves∵in∵a∵process∵of∵thinking.

We∵find∵therefore,∵that∵the∵second∵argument∵of∵Buddha∵leads∵us∵on∵to∵the∵conclusion∵that∵the∵belief∵in∵a∵permanent∵self∵would∵negate∵the∵sanctity∵and∵usefulness∵of∵the∵moral∵life.∵∵It∵is∵at∵this∵juncture∵that∵one∵is∵constrained∵to∵admit∵that∵concept∵of∵anatta∵dictates∵a∵different∵perspective∵for∵the∵pursuit∵of∵human∵actions.∵∵In∵fact∵this∵militates∵against∵the∵doctrine∵of∵predestination∵and∵hence∵the∵restricted∵possibility∵of∵freedom∵in∵human∵actions.∵Human∵actions∵assume∵a∵different∵meaning∵in∵the∵absence∵of∵a∵categorical∵belief∵in∵the∵existense∵of∵a∵soul.∵∵The∵doctrine∵of∵annatta∵brings∵in∵a∵certain∵amount∵of∵agnosticism.∵Which∵repudiates∵the∵doctrine∵that∵there∵are∵propositions∵which∵men∵ought∵to∵believe∵without∵logically∵satisfactory∵evidence.

Poverty∵has∵been∵called∵blessing∵on∵account∵of∵supernatural∵abundance.7∵But∵it∵cannot∵have∵any∵meaning∵if∵the∵very∵existence∵of∵the∵super∵natural∵whether∵soul∵or∵God∵remains∵beyond∵the∵reach∵of∵our∵present∵knowledgeable∵experience.∵∵Wishful∵thinking∵has,∵indeed,∵always∵had∵a∵strong∵influence∵on∵the∵formation∵of∵dogma.∵∵.

The∵question∵raised∵by∵the∵suffering∵humanity∵about∵the∵eternity∵of∵the∵world∵or∵the∵everlasting∵life∵have∵a∵much∵deeper∵meaning.∵∵Through∵this∵question∵the∵seeker∵in∵fact∵is∵seeking∵confirmation∵as∵to∵the∵continuation∵of∵life∵through∵self∵or∵atman.∵∵If∵suffering∵does∵not∵cease∵now,∵it∵may∵cease∵in∵the∵next∵life.∵∵But∵Buddha’s∵concept∵of∵soulessness∵（anatta）∵render∵all∵other∵questions∵as∵meaningless.∵∵Buddha∵said∵in∵this∵context,∵“This∵samsara∵beginning∵is∵inconceivable∵Monks;∵its∵starting∵point∵can∵not∵be∵known.”

Hence∵suffering∵must∵be∵eliminated∵in∵this∵life∵alone∵and∵within∵the∵framework∵of∵here∵and∵now:∵∵Action∵must∵find∵its∵justification∵within∵the∵autonomous∵moral∵structure∵of∵the∵consciousness∵of∵the∵inpidual.∵∵The∵man∵must∵himself∵be∵responsible∵for∵his∵happiness∵or∵suffering8∵as∵the∵case∵may∵be∵through∵actions∵which∵his∵autonomy∵of∵self∵has∵dictated∵to∵him∵in∵the∵name∵of∵perfect∵and∵fulfilled∵human∵existence.

∵

Bhuvan∵Chandel∵

Professor∵of∵Centre∵for∵Studies∵in∵Civilization